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• 1 media/JohnMorland Slave Trade 1788 Rijksmuseum EDIT.jpg 2016-06-28T21:08:15+00:00 The Slave Trade 76 image_header 2021-01-16T20:35:04+00:00

  This week's big question

  What was the role of slavery in the making of the Atlantic world?

  Video Introduction
  
  
  
  Learning outcomes

  At the end of this week you should be able to:
  • describe the basic outline of how the slave trade worked and its role in the Atlantic world;
  • explain something of slavery’s place in the development of the Americas;
  • explain something of slavery’s place in the development of West Africa;
  • explain early modern understandings of the legitimacy of slavery.

  Questions to consider, and learning activity

  • Describe King Adahenzou’s description of the role of slavery in Dahomey (see the primary source by A. Dalzel, from the list below). In general, how do the authors whose work we are reading this week portray African and Africans?
  • How did Europeans justify slavery​? What does it mean that they felt they had to do so?
  • How do the descriptions of runaways and revolt compare with the descriptions of the defenders of slavery?
  • Our primary documents range from 1537 to 1827, almost 300 years. What does that tell us about the place of slavery in the Atlantic world?
  • Slavery is probably as old as human society, but why did it become such a major force in the emerging Atlantic economy? Do the documents help us to understand that issue? Only propose answers that are based on the primary and secondary sources for this week.

  
  Background

  Few stories in human history are as compelling or heart-wrenching as that of the Atlantic slave trade. And few stories have shaped the modern West so profoundly.  We have no complete records, but historians agree that between 1550 and 1850 approximately 10 million people were sold as slaves and transported across the Atlantic to the Americas. We know this because we have fairly good records for shipping in this period. There's lots, however, that we don't know much about. We don't know very much, for example, about the people who were captured, and their lives in the early years of the slave trade. We have a very poor sense of the number of slaves who died en route – that is, either during capture and transportation while still in Africa, or at sea from disease, abuse or ships sinking. The only thing we know with any certainty is that this was one of the most important, and saddest, chapters in human history.
  
  Here is a map of the slave trade (click the map for details and to expand)
  
  Why slaves? And why so many slaves? The simple answer is that many of the colonies in the Americas had potential large-scale resource industries – most famously the sugar, tobacco, and later cotton plantations, but also mines and in some cases fisheries. All of these industries required large amounts of human labour. The Spanish tried using Indigenous peoples, under both forced and free conditions, but this worked poorly in part because these labouring populations resisted both free and coerced terms; and (as we will see next week) the massive death toll from disease meant they were simply an unreliable labour force. The British and French experimented with indentured labour – where the workers signed away their freedom for a period of years in return for a fixed sum at the end – but that too proved unreliable. Indentured Europeans typically ran away, as white workers could easily gain work on a ship or in another colony. Africans had much better immunity to disease, and as slaves – marked by their skin colour and often branded – far fewer opportunities to escape. Many chose death rather than the indignity of coerced servitude; it was the only way they could be free.
  
  In forcibly transporting 10 million people to the New World, we can see three major impacts. First, there was the human impact: the incredible​ barbarity inflicted on human beings.  The indignity of treating humans as property; the cruelty inflicted on the lives, the families, and the bodies of so many people; the violence necessary to maintain its functioning; the disruption of African communities​ and economies (as we saw this past week, while some Africans profited, the broader economy and society were greatly damaged). All of these combined to inflict incalculable losses on the peoples and societies of West Africa. Second, there was the demographic impact: it’s the greatest observable demographic transition in world history. Today over half of the peoples of the Americas identify as people of African ancestry. Third, there was the economic impact: slavery (that is, both the trade and the slaves themselves) created enormous amounts of wealth. Whether it was the mines of Brazil, the sugar plantations of the Caribbean, the cotton plantations of the United States, or the many other smaller examples, incredible amounts of wealth were created in both the capture and delivery of slaves and from the work they then performed. Indeed, this is one of the most interesting dimensions of the academic debate on the slave trade: just how much did slavery contribute to the explosion of economic and political power in Europe over the early modern period? In the 1940s, Eric Williams​, one of the most important historians of slavery, argued that the industrial revolution was financed by monies made in the slave trade.  Other historians disagree, arguing that while great wealth was created, it was not enough that we can measure its place in capital investment in the period.  But however one sees the question, it’s impossible to deny the enormous sums of money made, the political influence that emerged from such wealth, and the power emerging from the combination. 
  
  Our documents this week allow us to see aspects of the slave trade from capture in Africa, to the transportation across the Atlantic, the work they performed in the New World, and the many ways Africans resisted their condition. They do not allow us to answer that big question of slavery's financing of the modern West's success. But they do allow us to see something of the scale, and some effective illustrations of its inhumanity. There are few stories in human history that illustrate more clearly the depths to which humanity can sometimes fall.

  Toolbox

  In past weeks we have introduced you to several of the concepts of historical thinking, and in particular, you have focused on the skills of working with sources. In addition to these tools for historical thinking, you should also understand the challenges of thinking about the ethical dimensions of historical analysis. The authors of the introduction to ethical thinking in history highlight what they call a "difficult paradox": historians try to understand the past lives of people in terms that are fair to those people, but at the same time the accounts of the past that historians create do make moral judgements about past people's actions and beliefs.

  Read the short introduction to ethical dimensions of historical analysis. While you should not forget about "the depths to which humanity can sometimes fall" (as we acknowledge in our introduction above), your challenge for your writing and learning this week is to practice understanding slave owners and traders in their own terms. In other words, you have to try to avoid imposing today's values and beliefs on them, even though we cannot agree with what they did or believed.

  
  Primary sources

  • Pope Paul III, “Sublimus Deus” (1537).
  • Robert Norris, Memoirs of the Reign of Bossa Ahadee, King of Dahomy, an Inland Country of Guiney. To Which Are Added, the Author's Journey to Abomey, the Capital; and a Short Account of the African Slave Trade (London, Lowndes, 1789), 170-84.
  • Archibald Dalzel, The History of Dahomy (London, 1792), 216-221.
  • Bryan Edwards, The history civil and commercial, of the British colonies in the West Indies (London, Crosby and Letterman, 1799), 220-8.
  • John Riland, Memoir of a West India Planter (Glasgow, 1827), 46-63.
  • Two pages from a book entitled Account of a Slave Plot in Barbados, 1692.
  • Advertisement from New York Gazette, 27 October 1767.
  • An advertisement from the Virginia Gazette, 1769.
  • Advertisement from the Nova Scotia Gazette, 1772.
  • Advertisement from Nova Scotia from 1781.
  • Representation of a slave insurrection: "Representation of an Insurrection on board a Slave-Ship," 1794.

  Secondary sources

  Kenneth Morgan​, Slavery and the British Empire (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007), 7-33.
  Available as an eBook through the Library. 
  ​
  Junius P. Rodriguez, Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political and Historical Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, ABC-Clio eBooks, 2007), 84-91.
  
  Quakers are often held out to have been leaders in the movement to abolish slavery. That's true, but as Prof. Katharine Gerbner of the University of Minnesota discusses, that was a slow evolution and Quakers practiced and defended slavery for over a century. 
  ​

  Supplemental materials

  There are also numerous advertisements and images available at the Nova Scotia Archives and the Provincial Archives of Ontario.
  
  See this amazing visualisation of the slave trade from the 16th to the 19th century. Click on an individual dot to get full information on the ship, its flag, and the number of slaves transported.
  
   
• 1 media/Historical Thinking Logo.png 2017-02-04T12:15:37+00:00 NEW: Toolbox Overview 30 Updated: Jan. 2019 image_header 2019-01-23T15:00:34+00:00

  This page collects the Toolbox entries from the individual course lessons in one spot for easier review.

  From "Introductory Week"

  This course teaches you not only about the history of certain times and places, but also about the practice of history. To practice a trade, you need tools. Under this heading we will provide you with tools or exercises that will help you improve your reading, writing, inquiring and thinking in this course -- and we hope also in your life beyond the course.
  
  This week (the Introductory Week) we will get you to acquire an overview of the principles of thinking historically. Historical thinking is a variation on critical thinking. To start learning about it, you should read the following introductions from The Historical Thinking Project (click on the links):

  • The general introduction to the 6 components of historical thinking;
  • The introductions to the concepts of perspective and evidence in historical thinking.

  One of the purposes of the Forum exercise this week is to get you to think about your perspective as an interpreter of evidence about and from the past.

  Module 1

  From "Rulers and Subjects (1)"

  Probably the most basic and important skill all historians practice is the analysis of primary source evidence. Therefore, if you've ever taken a history course in university before, you've probably already had some good practice with this skill.
  
  This week you should think some more about use of sources and about the overall goal of a history education when you watch the following web video. Click here to start the video in a new window.
  
  The webcast is by Sam Wineburg, an excellent educational psychologist in the United States. Wineburg is the author of a book with the intriguing title Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts. In order to move beyond naive readings of source materials, Wineburg and many other educators recommend that you pay careful attention to the following additional skills when reading primary sources:

  • close reading,
  • contextualization,
  • corroboration, and
  • sourcing.

  The webcast introduces these skills and explains their relevance to the process of historical interpretation. Watch the webcast before you post in the Forum this week, and make sure to take notes. When you read sources for this week's Lesson -- and for all remaining Lessons -- make sure that you pay attention to these dimensions of source analysis.

  Note that a student at the beginning of the webcast refers to AP History, which is an American "advanced placement" exam that many high school students take.

  From "Rulers and Subjects (2)"

  In last week’s Toolbox you learned about the skills of primary source analysis. The resources provided by the web tutorial “Why Historical Thinking Matters” broke down these skills into 4 main parts:
  • close reading,
  • contextualization,
  • corroboration, and
  • sourcing.

  In this week’s Toolbox, you will learn a little about a related skill that is important for primary source analysis, as well as most other aspects of historical research and thinking. That skill is chronological thinking.
  
  Historians usually think chronologically (usually in stories or narratives). In fact, organizing evidence chronologically is crucial for effective contextualization, corroboration, and sourcing. A current example of the importance of chronology is found is the controversy in the American election campaign about when presidential candidate Donald Trump started opposing the War in Iraq in the early 2000s. What happened when? This seems like a straightforward question, right? Answering it in some cases can become complicated and even politically charged. That’s why it’s good to pay attention to and become good at clear, basic chronological thinking.
  
  Most cases of historical chronology are not so controversial today, but they can be important nonetheless. For example, in this week’s Lesson we are comparing and practicing close reading of three sources from 1649. What order do you think the documents were written? The question matters, because writers in the English Civil War were responding to events and ideas that were changing quickly, and they were often responding to one another, sometimes in anger, and sometimes with charges that could lead to imprisonment or even death (Charles I!!!).
  
  Be aware that the answer to the “simple” question of what order these three sources was written is not so simple. You can look for dates in the documents. That can help, for sure. The problem is that each of these documents had complex histories. This means that each was written in stages.
  
  One main challenge for the Lesson is to find clues in the sources. The best clues will be passages in the sources. Dates in the text are potentially valuable, but they are not the only clues. Passages from the texts that discuss ideas or events that provide clues are also REALLY VALUABLE. Think like a detective. Ask questions about your evidence. When you do so, you are also thinking like a historian!

  From "Agricultural Revolutions"

  The main skill to practice this Lesson is the analysis of secondary sources. In effect, you'll be learning an important of source analysis that is related to historical thinking. We could call this "historiographical thinking". The section above provide you with more details about historiography.
  
  A historical thinking skill that is related closely to historiographical thinking is the recognition and analysis of perspective. Not only can we analyze differing perspectives in primary sources from the past, but we can also recognize how people's perspectives (including our own) are complex and varied "today". This is of course also true of the writings of historians who try to make sense of the past. In this course (and in all your other history courses -- or courses on other subjects) practice comparing perspectives in all the sources you examine.
  
  One further aspect of historical thinking that is worth reviewing for this Lesson is the skill of identifying continuity and change. After all, it is the issue of change that Kerridge and Overton discuss in their related but importantly different interpretations of British agricultural history. Note that continuities and changes can take place in the short, medium, or long term. In other words, our view of change depends on the perspective that we take. This is one of many examples of how the elements of historical thinking are interrelated with one another.
  
  Follow the links in the two paragraphs above to read more about perspective, and continuity and change.
  
  You can use the chart below as a rough guide to aspects of European and Atlantic World history. These chronological categories can help you think in general terms about continuity and change. Please be aware that the periods outlined on the chart are not "facts" but rather generally agreed upon headings for periods. In a way, they are short-hand for interpretations of lots and lots of sources.
  

  Module 2

  From "Tranfcribing (!) Early Modern Sources"

  • There was no Toolbox entry for this week.

  From "Europe's Empires Expand"

  Before you read this Lesson's sources, make sure you review the Toolbox entries from the three Lesson's of Module 1. In the First Module you practiced the effective analysis of primary and secondary sources, and you also learned about the importance of paying attention to the different perspectives historians take when they analyze sources. Don't forget what you've learned in these Lessons. Your goal should be to build on your skills throughout the course.
  
  In your Forum entries for this week's Lesson, you will continue to practice the analysis of primary sources. Pay particular attention to the perspectives in each document. In a way similar to historians having different interpretations of the same questions, so too did people in the past have different interpretations of their worlds. You can consider questions such as:

  • Who was the author and what economic or social or religious or political interests did that person have?
  • When did he or she create the source?
  • What is the source about and what did the author think about that subject?

  You can probably think of other general questions that will help you to think about the perspective in any source. These are questions that are related to the skills of "sourcing" that you learned about in Module 1. To find our more about the general kinds of questions you should always have in mind when you consider a source's perspective, see the two Historical Thinking worksheets available through the link. The particular questions to think about for this week (in the Lesson above) will also help. Together, these general and particular questions will guide you as you look for differences (and similarities) in the perspectives of each primary source.

  From "Early Modern Africa"

  Because our focus for this Lesson is what, if anything, we can learn about early modern Africa from European sources, it is appropriate that we revisit the historical thinking skills that we practiced last week: the analysis of primary source evidence, and the careful attention to people's perspectives in the past. Another reason for revisiting these skills is that the links from the Historical Thinking Project website are working again. Please pay special attention to those links. Note that the text below is largely the same as last week's. Review is always important, and these skills are crucial for you to master.
  
  In your Forum entries for this week's Lesson, you will continue to practice the analysis of primary sources. Pay particular attention to the perspectives in each document. Just as historians have different interpretations of the same questions, so too did people in the past have different interpretations of their worlds. You can consider questions such as:
  • Who was the author and what economic or social or religious or political interests did that person have?
  • When did he or she create the source?
  • What is the source about and what did the author think about that subject?

  You can probably think of other general questions that will help you to think about the perspective in any source. These are questions that are related to the skills of "sourcing" that you learned about in Module 1. To find our more about the general kinds of questions you should always have in mind when you consider a source's perspective, see the two Historical Thinking worksheets available through the link.

  From "The Slave Trade"

  In past weeks we have introduced you to several of the concepts of historical thinking, and in particular, you have focused on the skills of working with sources. In addition to these tools for historical thinking, you should also understand the challenges of thinking about the ethical dimensions of historical analysis. The authors of the introduction to ethical thinking in history highlight what they call a "difficult paradox": historians try to understand the past lives of people in terms that are fair to those people, but at the same time the accounts of the past that historians create do make moral judgements about past people's actions and beliefs.

  Read the short introduction to ethical dimensions of historical analysis. While you should not forget about "the depths to which humanity can sometimes fall" (as we acknowledge in our introduction above), your challenge for your writing and learning this week is to practice understanding slave owners and traders in their own terms. In other words, you have to try to avoid imposing today's values and beliefs on them, even though we cannot agree with what they did or believed.

  From "The Columbian Exchange"

  • There was no Toolbox entry for this week.

  Module 3

  From Workshop Introducing Voyant Tools

  • There was no Toolbox entry for this week.

  From "Indigenous Cultures," "Missionaries," and "Colonial Societies"

  • The Toolbox entries for these weeks required you to review previous Toolboxes from Modules 1 and 2.

  From "Settler Societies and Commercial Expansion"

  This week's Toolbox entry introduces you to an important skill related to thinking historically: drawing inferences. 
  
  Inferences are the best guesses that we can make, based on the available evidence. They are necessary, because we NEVER have complete and perfect knowledge of the past. In fact, most of our knowledge of the past is based on very fragmentary evidence. Like detectives, historians have to collect whatever evidence they can in the search for answers to questions that interest them, and once they collect the evidence they have to piece its meaning together like judges or storytellers.
  
  How do you make strong inferences as opposed to plain and flimsy guesses? You use the skills of source analysis that we learned about earlier in the course ("Rulers and Subjects [1]"): close reading, corroboration, sourcing, and contextualization.
  
  Before you post to the Forum this week, make sure you review these skills, and when you post you should try to practice making strong inferences. We're including them below for your convenience:

  Probably the most basic and important skill all historians practice is the analysis of primary source evidence. Therefore, if you've ever taken a history course in university before, you've probably already had some good practice with this skill.

  This week you should think some more about use of sources and about the overall goal of a history education when you watch the following web video.

  Click here to start the video in a new window.

  The webcast is by Sam Wineburg, an excellent educational psychologist in the United States. Wineburg is the author of a book with the intriguing title Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts. In order to move beyond naive readings of source materials, Wineburg and many other educators recommend that you pay careful attention to the following additional skills when reading primary sources:

  • close reading,
  • contextualization,
  • corroboration, and
  • sourcing.

  The webcast introduces these skills and explains their relevance to the process of historical interpretation. Watch the webcast before you post in the Forum this week, and make sure to take notes. When you read sources for this week's Lesson -- and for all remaining Lessons -- make sure that you pay attention to these dimensions of source analysis.

  Note that a student at the beginning of the webcast refers to AP History, which is an American "advanced placement" exam that many high school students take.

  From "The Seven Years War"

  Like last week, this week's Toolbox is about drawing inferences. The skills of inference drawing are really important, and each of you can improve your work in this area.
   

• 1 media/JohnMorland Slave Trade 1788 Rijksmuseum EDIT.jpg 2022-10-27T11:01:18+00:00 The Slave Trade 11 2022-23 image_header 2022-10-27T13:05:51+00:00

  This week's big question

  What was the role of slavery in the making of the Atlantic world?

  Video Introduction
  
  
  
  Learning outcomes

  At the end of this week you should be able to:
  • describe the basic outline of how the slave trade worked and its role in the Atlantic world;
  • explain something of slavery’s place in the development of the Americas;
  • explain something of slavery’s place in the development of West Africa;
  • explain early modern understandings of the legitimacy of slavery.

  Questions to consider, and learning activity

  • Describe King Adahenzou’s description of the role of slavery in Dahomey (see the primary source by A. Dalzel, from the list below). In general, how do the authors whose work we are reading this week portray African and Africans?
  • How did Europeans justify slavery​? What does it mean that they felt they had to do so?
  • How do the descriptions of runaways and revolt compare with the descriptions of the defenders of slavery?
  • Our primary documents range from 1537 to 1827, almost 300 years. What does that tell us about the place of slavery in the Atlantic world?
  • Slavery is probably as old as human society, but why did it become such a major force in the emerging Atlantic economy? Do the documents help us to understand that issue? Only propose answers that are based on the primary and secondary sources for this week.

  
  Background

  Few stories in human history are as compelling or heart-wrenching as that of the Atlantic slave trade. And few stories have shaped the modern West so profoundly.  We have no complete records, but historians agree that between 1550 and 1850 approximately 10 million people were sold as slaves and transported across the Atlantic to the Americas. In the 300 years before the British and other countries finally abolished slavery in there colonies in the mid-19th century, the demographic profile of the Atlantic world, and its political and social hierarchies, would be completely transformed.
  
  We know this because we have fairly good records for shipping in this period. There's lots, however, that we don't know much about. We don't know very much, for example, about the people who were captured, and their lives in the early years of the slave trade. We have a very poor sense of the number of slaves who died en route – that is, either during capture and transportation while still in Africa, or at sea from disease, abuse or ships sinking. Although we do have one very gruesome insurance case that records the deaths of 250 Africans, 150 of whom were thrown overboard due to lack of provisions on the ship, highlighting not only the  tragic loss of life, but also the significant investment that merchants had in the slave trade. The only thing we know with any certainty is that this was one of the most important, and saddest, chapters in human history.
  
  Here is a map of the slave trade (click the map for details and to expand)
  
  Why slaves? And why so many slaves? The simple answer is that many of the colonies in the Americas had potential large-scale resource industries – most famously the sugar, tobacco, and later cotton plantations, but also mines and in some cases fisheries. All of these industries required large amounts of human labour. The Spanish tried using Indigenous peoples, under both forced and free conditions, but this worked poorly in part because these labouring populations resisted both free and coerced terms; and (as we will see next week) the massive death toll from disease meant they were simply an unreliable labour force. The British and French experimented with indentured labour – where the workers signed away their freedom for a period of years in return for a fixed sum at the end – but that too proved unreliable. Indentured Europeans typically ran away, as white workers could easily gain work on a ship or in another colony. Africans had much better immunity to disease, and as slaves – marked by their skin colour and often branded – far fewer opportunities to escape. Many chose death rather than the indignity of coerced servitude; it was the only way they could be free.
  
  In forcibly transporting 10 million people to the New World, we can see three major impacts. First, there was the human impact: the incredible​ barbarity inflicted on human beings.  The indignity of treating humans as property; the cruelty inflicted on the lives, the families, and the bodies of so many people; the violence necessary to maintain its functioning; the disruption of African communities​ and economies (as we saw this past week, while some Africans profited, the broader economy and society were greatly damaged). All of these combined to inflict incalculable losses on the peoples and societies of West Africa. Second, there was the demographic impact: it’s the greatest observable demographic transition in world history. Today over half of the peoples of the Americas identify as people of African ancestry. Third, there was the economic impact: slavery (that is, both the trade and the slaves themselves) created enormous amounts of wealth. Whether it was the mines of Brazil, the sugar plantations of the Caribbean, the cotton plantations of the United States, or the many other smaller examples, incredible amounts of wealth were created in both the capture and delivery of slaves and from the work they then performed. Indeed, this is one of the most interesting dimensions of the academic debate on the slave trade: just how much did slavery contribute to the explosion of economic and political power in Europe over the early modern period? In the 1940s, Eric Williams​, one of the most important historians of slavery, argued that the industrial revolution was financed by monies made in the slave trade.  Other historians disagree, arguing that while great wealth was created, it was not enough that we can measure its place in capital investment in the period.  But however one sees the question, it’s impossible to deny the enormous sums of money made, the political influence that emerged from such wealth, and the power emerging from the combination. 
  
  Our documents this week allow us to see aspects of the slave trade from capture in Africa, to the transportation across the Atlantic, the work they performed in the New World, and the many ways Africans resisted their condition. They do not allow us to answer that big question of slavery's financing of the modern West's success. But they do allow us to see something of the scale, and some effective illustrations of its inhumanity. There are few stories in human history that illustrate more clearly the depths to which humanity can sometimes fall.

  Toolbox

  In past weeks we have introduced you to several of the concepts of historical thinking, and in particular, you have focused on the skills of working with sources. In addition to these tools for historical thinking, you should also understand the challenges of thinking about the ethical dimensions of historical analysis. The authors of the introduction to ethical thinking in history highlight what they call a "difficult paradox": historians try to understand the past lives of people in terms that are fair to those people, but at the same time the accounts of the past that historians create do make moral judgements about past people's actions and beliefs.

  Read the short introduction to ethical dimensions of historical analysis. While you should not forget about "the depths to which humanity can sometimes fall" (as we acknowledge in our introduction above), your challenge for your writing and learning this week is to practice understanding slave owners and traders in their own terms. In other words, you have to try to avoid imposing today's values and beliefs on them, even though we cannot agree with what they did or believed.

  
  Primary sources

  • Pope Paul III, “Sublimus Deus” (1537).
  • Robert Norris, Memoirs of the Reign of Bossa Ahadee, King of Dahomy, an Inland Country of Guiney. To Which Are Added, the Author's Journey to Abomey, the Capital; and a Short Account of the African Slave Trade (London, Lowndes, 1789), 170-84.
  • Bryan Edwards, The history civil and commercial, of the British colonies in the West Indies (London, Crosby and Letterman, 1799), 220-8.
  • Two pages from a book entitled Account of a Slave Plot in Barbados, 1692.
  Try your hand at transcribing one of the following advertisements, then unpack what we can learn about individual slaves and their roles in Colonial New England and Nova Scotia.
  • Advertisement from New York Gazette, 27 October 1767.
  • An advertisement from the Virginia Gazette, 1769.
  • Advertisement from the Nova Scotia Gazette, 1772.
  • Advertisement from Nova Scotia from 1781.

  Secondary sources

  Watch: This visualisation of the slave trade from the 16th to the 19th century from Slate magazine. If you pause, and click on an individual dot to get full information on the ship, its flag, and the number of slaves transported. Even more significantly, watch the video for the patterns and how they change over time. Keep these in mind as you engage with the sources.
  
  Read: Kenneth Morgan​, Slavery and the British Empire (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2007), 7-33.
  Available as an eBook through the Library. 
  ​
  And Listen to:
  
  Podcast: Katherine Gerbner, "Christian Slavery", episode 206 of Ben Franklin's World (2018).
  
  OR
  
  Podcast: Greg O'Malley, "Final Passages: The Intercolonial Slave Trade of British America, 1619-1807", episode 008 of Ben Franklin's World (2014).
  ​

  Supplemental materials

  There are also numerous advertisements and images available at the Nova Scotia Archives and the Provincial Archives of Ontario. We will pursue slavery in Canada a little later in the course, but for now, this will give you a quick test of how the trade reached Canada's shores as well.